Climate change has become one of the biggest challenges to humankind in the 21st century. It has multiple negative impacts on people’s lives and livelihoods, particularly agriculture. Floods, landslides, droughts, and sea–level rise are the main climate threats to Indonesia, making the country a hotspot for the impacts of multiple hazards, exposing about 40% of the population to them, and leading to a relatively high mortality risk from these hazards, as compared with other countries.1 Climate change manifests in several ways in Indonesia. Overall, the developments from past decades indicate a trend towards increasingly higher temperatures and more annual rainfall
(Republic of Indonesia 2013). Further, the annual distribution of rainfall is changing, as wet seasons have increasingly more rainfall, while dry seasons get increasingly drier. In addition, the regional distribution of rainfall is changing as well, with rainfall increasing in the northern
regions, while decreasing in the South of Indonesia (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands 2018). Moreover, the onset of the seasons is changing, making rainfall predictions more unreliable. Future projections assert that continuing climate change will cause a higher
number of extreme events, particularly droughts and floods. The El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) further aggravates these tendencies and appears to occur more often. An El Niño year comes at intervals of two to seven years and brings the warm water to the Pacific Ocean, which causes that rainfall is happening further east and brings drought to Indonesia and Australia. La Niña usually comes after El Niño and brings to the opposite, as warm currents in Oceania bring more rainfall to Indonesia. Climate change models project a delay in the annual monsoon season of up to one month. Besides this delay, it is clearly observed that dry season rainfall decreases, while wet season
rainfall further increases. Such changes have very strong impacts on the Indonesian agriculture and consequences for food production and security in Indonesia. Climate change itself is caused by an unsustainable socio–economic development and lifestyles that contribute to high levels of greenhouse gas emissions and a tendency to leave behind habits that have been more environmentally friendly and less emission–extensive.